At this point the notion of goods as they relate to the instrumental and non-instrumental can be added to our considerations. I have spoken of two distinct “stances” or approaches to the world as adopted by homo sapiens. One views things1 in terms of their purported usefulness or utility, of their instrumental value for the sake of some further end or goal. The other views things for their own sake, as ends in themselves, as such. Furthermore, it is the human person–conceived as a unique subject existing beyond or outside the instrumental and non-instrumental2–which adds yet another level of complexity to our understanding of these stances, particularly the instrumental.3
Consider the notion of goods. In its most basic form, the good refers to that which is desired.4 Something may be desired for instrumental or non-instrumental reasons. If it is desired for instrumental reasons, such a thing may be called an instrumental good. If it is desired for non-instrumental reasons, a non-instrumental good. The first is good for–for something beyond itself. The second is good, as such, as an end in itself.
When we consider goods specifically, we can consider them from an objective or subjective viewpoint. Again, take the example of money. Money is a medium of exchange; objectively, that is what it is. Thus, money as such is an instrumental good. But money can also be considered from a unique viewpoint or perspective. Consider the example of a coin collector. Suppose a collector of rare coins simply desires his or her collection, not as an investment, but as an end in itself. The question of the economic value or worth of a given coin is not the motive behind the collection: it is rather the collection itself–comprised of whichever coins the collector desires. In this case, the collection is a non-instrumental good–but only insofar as it is considered from the perspective of the human person in question–the coin collector. And this is true even though the objects in question–money–are as such instrumental goods.
What about when the object is a non-instrumental good? Love is perhaps the quintessential example of such a good.5 In its purest form love is an end in itself, existing for its own sake. Yet suppose a young girl gets married, not because she loves her husband, but because he is rich. In this example the object–love, a non-instrumental good–is, from the perspective of the human person in question, the girl–made into an instrument of her own desire for wealth. Thus, by adopting a unique viewpoint or perspective, the human person is capable of instrumentalizing non-instrumental goods and vice versa.6 The instrumental stance and the act of instrumentalizing are one in the same thing.
Depending on the unique perspective of the person, a field of potential exists when it comes to the instrumental (or non-instrumental). A drink may be used to quench thirst–a glass of water. A glass of wine, a pint of ale, a dram of scotch–may be an end in itself–or a means to intoxication. A meal may be merely a meal, a means of sustenance, continued maintenance of biological function–or it may be an end in itself, shared amongst family and friends, conversation, laughter and joy. A sunset may be an end in itself, or it may be a means to create a romantic atmosphere to woo a potential lover. Education and learning may be an end in itself,7 or a means to secure a better economic foothold–to make more money, to raise one’s standard of living. Christmas lights may be put up as an end in itself, for the enjoyment of passers-by, or as a means to impress one’s neighbors. Kneeling in prayer after Mass may be an end in itself, or an attempt to come off as pious and holy. A good deed may be done–the returning of a wallet–as an end in itself, or in hopes of getting a reward. Becoming close to an elderly relative may be an end in itself, or it may play an instrumental role in acquiring an inheritance. Each of these things may be done for either instrumental or non-instrumental reasons. It depends on the stance taken by the person.
Benjamin Franklin’s catalog of the virtues provides another, albeit different, example. Historically, the notion of virtue has generally been seen an end in itself, or rather, when virtue is considered as a means it is such that it cannot be entirely characterized independently of the end for which it exists. With Franklin, however, the virtues take on a utilitarian or instrumental character.8 For instance, Franklin’s precept to the virtue of what he calls “Industry” reads as follows: “Lose no time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary actions.”9
Notes:
1. Again, “things” may refer to ideas, people, material possessions, processes, or something else.
2. What I mean by “existing beyond or outside” is that the human subject is the locus of a unique viewpoint or perspective, thus providing an arena of choice or motive that is external to the object or thing in question, i.e., “existing beyond or outside”, a subjective viewpoint or perspective. As we will see, reasons and motives may be instrumental or non-instrumental, and of themselves have the potential to be transformative in terms of ends.
3. This was alluded to in endnote #6 in The Instrumental Stance: Analysis and Contrast.
4. I am following Aristotle on this line of thought. See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics. I am also following Aquinas, who himself follows Aristotle. See St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, I, 5. The concept of “goods” is not merely economic, but is broader and more fundamental.
5. I am well aware that there are some–such as some perspectives from evolutionary psychology, for instance–who would challenge this. Disagreements of this sort would likely indicate a disagreement over the definition of the word “love”.
6. To instrumentalize the non-instrumental, is to adopt the instrumental stance; to non-instrumentalize the instrumental, is to adopt the non-instrumental stance.
7. This is discussed at length by John Henry Newman. See John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University.
8. I would again call the reader’s attention to Franklin’s Advice to a Young Tradesman [21 July, 1748], and “Necessary Hints To Those That Would Be Rich”, found in The Works of Benjamin Franklin, Vol. II Letters and Misc. Writings 1735-1753.
9. Singling out the virtue of “Industry” is perhaps unfair, since Franklin may be the first to consider such a thing a virtue. Still, defining a virtue in instrumental terms is itself illustrative of the point. See Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin.